Issue 53: Macroeconomics: Mixed Economy: Resources, Goals, and Institutions

What are the resources of our economic system? What kinds of payments are made for their use?

What goals do we want our economy to achieve? Can we trade various goals against one another? Are there cost of doing so?

Why is our economic system called "capitalistic"? What social, political, and economic institutions constitute the basis of capitalism? How can we depict the flow of goods and resources in a capitalistic system?

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 The existence of alternative uses implies that there is scarce resource and choices must be made concerning its use.

Using a set resources to produce one thing requires giving up something else.

Factor of Production: Basic Components "inputs", that every society uses to produce goods and services "outputs"
Material resources: Natural resources, raw materials, machinery and equipment, buildings, and transportation and communication facilities.
-Land:
          Means all nonhuman or "natural" resources. Gifts of nature. Natural resources consist of physical endowment upon which any civilization is built.
          Have little economic value until a society is willing and able to develop them.
          Ex: Oil: Natural nuisance until 1850s but now it makes, fuel, lubricants, plastics, and chemicals and thus now value.
-Capital
          Manufactured good that is used to produce other goods. Produced means of further productions. Produce: Capital is created by human resources working with material resources.
          Ex: Timber--Natural, but Lumber is Capital.
          Capital goods or investment goods: Things used by business.
          Tools, Machinery and equipment, factory buildings, freight cars, and office furniture.
Human resources: Productive physical and mental abilities of people.
-Labor
          Make land and capital productive
          Effort or activities of people hired to assist in the production of goods and services.
          Service worker are providing by working.
-Entrepreneurship (Ownership)
          Production of goods or services, the other 3 factors must be organized and combined.
          Someone who risks his or her money in a venture in hopes of making a profit.
          Assembles the factors of Productionn, raise the necessary money, organizes the management, makes basic business policy decisions, and reaps the gain of success or losses of failure.


Scarcity:
A good that isn't scarce is a "free good", aquired without sacrifice: without giving something up.

Choice and Cost:
Choice thus entails costs
Cost of any choice is the value of the alternative forgone in making that choice
Opportunity Cost: Value of a benefit that is forgone by choosing one alternative rather than another
     Measured by what an economic entity is not doing but could be doing
     The opportunity cost of any decision is thus the value of the sacrificed alternative.

Rent: Supply land and other natural resources receive a payment
Interest: Supply financial capital, money that business firms borrow for the purchase of physical capital
Wages: A payment workers receive after selling their labor. (Salaries and Commissions)
National Income: Yearly sum of rents, interest, wages, and profits for a country


Resource: Payment
Land: Rent
Capital: Interest
Labor: Wages
Entrepreneurship: Profit
Annual Total: National Income


Specialization: Division of productive activities among people and regions with the result that no one person or area is self-sufficient. AKA. Division of Labor

Adam Smith, a Scottish philosopher: Founder of Modern Economics.
-Allow for the development and refinement of skills
-Eliminate the waste of time that is entailed in going from one job to another
-Simplify human tasks, thus permitting the introduction of laborsaving machines.

Goals of Our Economic System:
Efficiency: Full Employment of Resources
Efficiency is the best use of available resources to attain a desired result.
    -Technical Efficiency: When it is producing maximum output by making the fullest possible utilization of available inputs. Available resources are fully employed in the most effective way
    -Economic (Allocative) Efficiency: When economy is producing a combination of goods and services that people prefer due to incomes.

Issue 52: Macroeconomics Introductions

Economics: social science concerned chiefly with the way society employs its limited resources, which have alternative uses, to produce goods and service for present and future consumption.
It is a Social Science--Deals with psychology, sociology, human interactions, economic interaction.
Resources: Anything that can be used to produce goods and services.
            -Human resources: Labor and skilled workers
            -Material resources: Machinery, Buildings, and Land.
Limited resources have alternative uses, they are called scarce. The existence of alternative uses for a resource implies it is scarce. Confronts us constantly. Time is a scarce resource.
Scarcity implies existence of alternative and thus choices be made among the alternatives.
Economic Systems: Choices that are made and the way in which they are made due to society's laws, customs, and practices.
--Capitalism
--Socialism

Macroeconomics: Concerned with the economy as a whole, or with large segments. Focuses on problems such as rate of unemployment, changing level of prices, and nation's total output of goods and services, and the ways in which the government raises and spend money.

Variables: A measure that can take on different values.

At one point in time, a hypothesis existed when there's no evidence to support it, a theory if there were some evidence and a law or principle when certain.
Now, these are used interchangeably.

A theory may be stated in a form of a model.
Model: representation of the essential features of a theory or of a real-world situation.
-may be expressed in the form of words, diagrams, tables of data, graphs, mathematical equation, or a combination.
A model is easier to manipulate than the reality it represents. It is a simplification of reality.

Fallacy of  False Cause or Post hoc fallacy: Cause and effect relationship "if-then" relationships are common.
If A occurs, then B occurs.
Therefore A caused B.

There are other reasons though.

B may occur by chance
B may be caused by factors other than A, or a common cause of both A and B
B may cause A

Fallacy of Composition: One reason that what is true of the parts of something is also necessarily true of the whole of it. Warns us that what is true of the parts is not necessarily true of the whole.

Fallacy of Division: One contends that something that is true of the whole is also necessariily true of its parts taken separately. Warns us that what is true of the whole is not necessarily true of the parts.

Issue 51: Japanese: Regents Midyear Review

日本語の練習シート: 学期中試験

文法(Bunpou) Grammar：

① N1 の N2: Use to describe N2

Look at ⑥’s  review part. It just modifies.

                1. 妹のまりはやさしいです。

                My younger sister, Mari,  is kind.

                ２．兄のダンは銀行にはたらいています。

                My older brother, Dan, is working  in a bank.

② ~しか+negative predicate

Damn. This is hard to really say without knowing Dake. Dake= Only. Shika, nothing but...

Shika= use a negative verb as well. (DOUBLE NEGATIVE IN JAPANESE IS TOTALLY FINE)

So I'll show the use of Dake and Shika.

Shika/Dake	Japanese	English
Dake(Only)	私だけ行きました。	Only  I went.
Shika (Nothing but)	私しかいきませんでした。	Nobody but I went.

They have the same meaning basically.^

                1. 姉だけようちえんをかよった。

                My older sister only went to Kindergarten.

                2. 姉しかようちえんをかよわなかった。

                Nobody but my older sister went to Kindergarten.

http://www.learn-japanese-adventure.com/japanese-expressions-dake-shika.html

For more :3

③ oo-form (mashou informal) Let's do V1

Ohhh~ I love this. But this gets confusing. How many of you actually know the difference btwn G1 and G2 verbs? Not me. G1 follows Nomimasu rules, G2 follows Tabemasu rules :3

	Dictionary Form	OO-Form.
Following Nomimasu (G1)	のむ (To drink) かう (To buy) あそぶ (To play) まつ (To wait) はなす (To speak) かく (To write)	のもう (Let's drink) かおう (Let's buy) あそぼう (Let's play) まとう (Let's wait) はなそう (Let's speak) かこう (Let's write)
Following Tabemasu (G2)	たべる (To eat) みる (To see)	たべよう (Let's eat) みよう (Let's see)
Irregular	する (To do) くる (To come)	しよう (Let's do) こよう (Let's come)

                1. いっしょにかえろう。

                Let's return together. (Such a common shoujo anime statement -////-)

                2. 宿題をしよう。

                Let's do homework.

④N1というN2. N1 is specific and N2 is the general category

                １．「けいおう」というの日本の私立大学はいいのがっこうです。

                The Japanese Private University called Keio University is a good school.

⑤N1とかN2（とか）：Used to give examples. Things such as N1 and N2.　Among others.

                １．ももとかりんごとかなしとかがすきです。

                I like peaches, apples, pears, among others.

                ２．たいわんとか日本をいってみたいです。

                I want to go to Taiwan and Japan.

⑥

　Review:　How to modify a noun

Part of Speech	How to Modify a noun
Noun	N1 +の+N2 (Let N1 be the noun modifying N2)
I-Adj	I-adj +Noun
Na-Adj	Na-adj +な+ Noun
Pre-Nominative (Kono,Sono, etc.)	Pre-Nominative + Noun
Verbs	Plain-form+ Noun

Note: Heiwa(peace is a noun in Japanese but it also means peaceful as a Na-verb)

＊Review: How to conjugate  into plain form

What is plain form? Dictionary Form, Nai-Form, Ta-Form, Nakatta-Form

	Dictionary-Form	Nai-Form	Ta- Form	Nakatta-Form
行きます This is a verb and should be easy for you.	行く	行かない	行った	行かなかった
たのしいです This is an "i"-adj. The "i" turns to a "k(vowel)" sound depending on what form, after the dictionary form.... which is just drop "desu"	たのしい	たのしくない	たのしかった	たのしくなかった
きれいです This is a "na" adj. I like to say that the desu turns into a da because na-verbs are annoying thus ugly to the eye so you must have a cover to cover the ugliness," da" (If that makes any sense). And since it is not a "i" adj.And use datta for ta-forms... And the sound Ja as an cover for negation.	きれいだ	きれいじゃない　きれいではない	きれいだった	きれいじゃなかった

⑥ Plain Form Verb  +時（とき）: The time when (V),  ...

Ms. Kawamoto said that "了" is the best way to say express this to the Chinese speakers.

Present:

Japanese:食事（しょくじ）をする時に、「いただきます」をと言う。

Chinese: (吃飯時，要說 「Itadakimasu」。)

English: When we eat, we say "Itadakimasu".

Past:

Japanese: 食事（しょくじ）をした時に、「ごちそうさま」をと言う。

Chinese: 吃完飯了，要說 「Gochisousama」。

English: When we ate, we say "Gochisousama".

⑦How to use Adj. +時（とき）: The time when N1 was adj.... Basically the same rules as ④.

Na-adj:  ... Na-adj+な+時（とき）...

I-adj: I-adj + +時（とき）...

漢字(Kanji) Yeah if you don't know it just write it all over this white space below. More phrases are below.

漢字：English translation: Reading(s)

漢：China (Han Dynasty) : Kan         

字：Character; writing : Ji                   

姉：Elder Sister : Ane/ Ne                  

妹：Little Sister:  Imouto                    

兄：Elder Brother: Ani/ Ni                  

弟：Little Brother: Otouto                 

昼：Daytime: Hiru

明：Aka(rui): Bright

去：Kyo: Past

銀：Silver: Gin

仕：To serve: shi

公： Public:  Kou                      1. Kouritsu: Public            2.Kouen: Park    3. Koushi: Public and Private

文：Sentence: Bun                 1. Bungaku: Literature   2. Bunpou: Grammar      3. Sakubun: Essay

化：to take form of : Ka/ke 1. Kagaku: Chemistry      2.Bunka: Culture  3.Okeshou wo suru: To apply make up

花：Flower: Hana    1. Hanabi: Fireworks       2. Hanami: Flower viewing           3. Hanaya: Flower store

4.Hana Matsuri: Flower Festival

海：Ocean/Sea/Beach: Umi/Kai       1.Kaigai: Overseas           2.Nihonkai: Sea of Japan              3.Hokkaidou: Hokkaidou (Northern Island of Japan)

旅：Travel: Ryo        1.Ryokou: Travel/Trip     2.Kaigai Ryokou: Oversea travel                                3. Shuugaku Ryokou: Study tour

教：To teach: Oshi(eru)/ Kyou          1. Kyoushitsu: Classroom              2.Kyoukasho: Textbook                3.Kyoukai: Church

室：Room: Shitsu    1. Kyoushitsu: Classroom             2. Jishitsu: Own room    3. Washitsu: Japanese Styled Room

後：After/Behind: Ato/Ushiro/Go   1.Saigo: Last       2.Houkago: Afterschool                3. Gogo: Afternoon

午：Noon: Go           1.Gozen: AM     2. Gogo: PM       3. Dango: Boy's day (Holiday-May 5th)

着：To wear or to arrive: Ki(ru)/Tsu(ku)        1.Fuku wo Kimasu: to wear clothes         2. Kimono: Traditional Japanese robes    3. Gakkou ni tsukimasu: To arrive at school

知：To get to know : Shi(ru)                               1. Shirase: Notice             2. Shiteimasuka: Do you know?                 3. Shirimasen/Shiranai: IDK

漢字（かんじ）Chinese Characters

お姉さん（おねえさん）Other's Older sister

お兄さん（おにいさん）Other's Older brother

兄弟　（きょうだい）Siblings

朝食（ちょうしょく）Breakfast (Mature)

昼食（ちゅうしょく）Lunch (Mature) Btw think, 中, ( chuu  or naka meaning middle) cuz lunch is middle of the day.

明日　（あした）Tomorrow

去年（きょねん）Last Year

銀行（ぎんこう）Bank

仕事（しごと） Job

公立（こうりつ）Public

文化　（ぶんか）Culture

文学（ぶんがく）Literature

化学（かがく）Chemistry

化しょうする（けしょうする）To put on Make Up

花屋（はなや）Flower Store

海外（かいがい）Overseas

旅行（りょこう）Traveling

教室（きょうしつ）Classroom

教科書（きょうかしょ）Textbook →we never learned this in kanji so beware.

ほうか後（ほうかご）Afterschool

午前　（ごぜん）AM

午後（ごご）PM

着る（きる）To wear

学校を着く　（がっこうをつく）To go to school

知りません　（しりません）IDK

単語(Tango) Vocab：

Peace: へいわ：平和 (Also an era in Japan. Heiwa period :3 Supposedly peaceful)

Private:しりつ：私立

Public:こうりつ：公立

Boy's School：だんしこう：男子校

Girl's School：じょしこう：女子校 (JK=Joushi Kou)

Co-educational：(だんじょ)きょうがく：(男女)共学

Education:きょういく：教育

Tuition:じゅぎょうりょう：授業料: ( Jyugyou means class too....)

Grass:くさ：草

Lawn:しばふ：芝生

To Commute:かよう：通う: (Commuting is kayotteimasu)

Event:ぎょうじ：行事

After school:ほうかご：放課後: (Literal meaning is "After release from class")

Club Activity:ぶかつ：部活 (Go home club is Kiraku-bu. Bu= club :3)

Kendo:けんどう:

Cram School:じゅく：塾

Allowance:（お）こづかい：（お）小遣い

To study abroad:りゆうがくをする：留学する

To do (informal):やる

To perm:パーマをかける

To apply make-up:（お）けしょうをする：（お）化粧をする

To remove:ぬぐ(脱ぐ）

To change: (Look at the grammar point)かえる：替える

Bullying:いじめ: (I think of Ijiwaru=evil. Both have negative connotation )

Gun:じゅう：銃:

Drugs:まやく：麻薬 (weirdly means anesthetics in Chinese)

Cheating:カンニング: Cunning

Almost:ほとんど 

Point:ところ：所: (AKA Place. Basho works as well.)

Semester:がっき：学期

Graduation Ceremony:そつぎょうしき：卒業式

Culture:ぶんか：文化

Overseas travel:かいがいりょうこう：海外旅行

To quit/ discontinue:やめる：止める

Proverb:ことわざ

My grandfather:祖父（そふ）

My grandmother:祖母（そぼ）

My uncle:叔父（おじ）

My aunt:叔母（おば）

Kindergarten:幼稚園（ようちえん）

Physics:物理（ぶつり）

Chemistry:化学（かがく）

Literature:文学（ぶんがく）

History:歴史（れきし）

To graduate:卒業をする（そつぎょうをする）

To major in:専攻をする（せんこうをする）

It is I (not you):こちらこそ

(leaving home for the day):行って来ます

(seeing off a person for the day):行ってらっしゃい

I'm home:ただいま

Welcome home:おかえりなさい

Good night:おやすみ

Excuse me for doing something first:お先に（おさくに）

Excuse me:しつれいします

I'm sorry for being rude:しつれいしました

Carrot:人参（にんじん）

Breakfast(formal):朝食（ちょうしょく）

Lunch (formal):昼食（ちゅうしょく）

Dinner (formal):夕食（ゆうしょく）

To change:変える（かえる）

To use:使う（つかう）

今(いま)、僕(ぼく)は東京(とうきょう)の私立(しりつ)の男女共学(だんじょきょうがく)の高校(こうこう)に留学(りゅうがく)している。

Right now, I am in a Tokyo Private Co-(－)educational high school to study abroad.

戸田高校(とだこうこう)という学校(がっこう)だ。

The school is called Toda High School.

授業料(じゅぎょうりょう)はアメリカ(あめりか)の高校(こうこう)ほどたくない。

The tuition compared to America is not expensive.

この学校はアメリカの学校よりずっとせまい。

This school is much smaller than American schools. (semai=narrow/smaller)

木(き)とか花(はな)とか草(くさ)とか緑(みどり) 少(すく)ない(。)。

There are fewer trees, flowers, and grass.

芝生(しばふ)もほとんどない。

There's almost nothing of a lawn.

この学校(がっこう)には制服(せいふく)があって、僕(ぼく)も制服(せいふく)を着(き)て、学校(がっこう)へ通(かよ)っている。

There's a uniform in the school and I also wear it while attending school.

自動車(じどうしゃ)で学校(がっこう)へ通(かよ)う生徒(せいと)はいなくて、ほとんど電車(でんしゃ)やバス(ばす)などで通(かよ)っている。

There's no students who commute by the car and instead mostly by bus or train.

この学校(がっこう)の規則(きそく)はきびしくて、女子生徒(じょしせいと)はパーマをかけたり、化粧(けしょう)をしたりしてはいけない。

The school's rules are strict. Female students cannot perm or put on make-up.

学校(がっこう)に着(つ)いて建物(たてもの)の中(なか)に入(はい)る時(とき)、外(そと)の靴(くつ)を脱(ぬ)いで、中(なか)の靴(くつ)にはきかえなくてはいけない。

When you arrive inside the building, you must remove the outside shoes and put on indoor shoes. (Tatemono=building/nuide=to remove)

日本(にほん)の学校(がっこう)は四月(しがつ)に始(はじ)まって、三月(さんがつ)に終(お)わる。

Japanese schools start in April and end in March.

三学期(さんがっき)あって、入学式(にゅうがくしき)とか卒業式(そつぎょうしき)とか式(しき)が多(おお)い。

During the third semester, there's the entrance ceremony, graduation ceremony, among many other ceremonies.

学校(がっこう)の行事(ぎょうじ)は運動会(うんどうかい)とか文化祭(ぶんかさい)とか修学旅行(しゅうがくりょこう)とかいろいろある。

The school has many events such as sports fair, cultural festival, school trips and many more.

この学校(がっこう)では高二(こうに)の時(とき)に修学旅行(しゅうがくりょこう)として海外旅行(かいがいりょこう)をする。

During the second year of this school, the study trip is as an oversea travel trip.

学校(がっこう)が終(お)わった時(とき)、生徒(せいと)は教室(きょうしつ)とかトイレ(といれ)とか掃除(そうじ)しなければならない。

When school ends, students must clean the classroom and toilets.

放課後(ほうかご)、部活(ぶかつ)をする生徒(せいと)も多(おお)い。

Afterschool, a lot of students have club.

塾(じゅく)に通(かよ)う生徒(せいと)もいる。

There's also students who go to cram school.

僕(ぼく)は一学期(いちがっき)にテニス(てにす)部(ぶ)に入(はい)っていたけど、やめて、二学期(にがっき)から剣道(けんどう)をやっている。

During the first semester, I joined tennis but stop and during second semester did kendo.

日本(にほん)の文化(ぶんか)が分(わ)かっておもしろい。

It is interesting to understand Japan's culture.

日本(にほん)の学校(がっこう)にもいじめとかいろいろ問題(もんだい)があるけど、アメリカ(あめりか)の銃(じゅう)や麻薬(まやく)の問題(もんだい)にくらべたら、とても平和(へいわ)な場所(ばしょ)だと思(おも)う。

In Japanese schools, bullying is a common problem,  but compared to American school's gun and drug problem, it is a rather peaceful place.